MONITORING – THE CONTEXT


Preservation of the Antarctic environment is of primary importance to those that live and work on the continent. Historically this has not always been the case. All who have a presence in Antarctica operate in an international atmosphere of cooperation under the auspices of the Antarctic Treaty. With a presence comes a responsibility for stewardship of the values and resources that make Antarctica an oasis for science. While often referred to as the most pristine place left on the planet, people have in fact been going to Antarctica for more than a hundred years (Scott, Amudsen, and Shackelton). Commercial taking of animals at the end of the nineteenth and early twentieth century impacted the populations of several species of whales and seals. Also left behind are the remnants of whaling stations that have altered the environment of some Antarctic islands, such as South Georgia and Deception Island (a map), in the southern ocean. It is believed that the continued harvesting of some species in Antarctic waters is significantly depleting natural populations raising concerns about the sustainability of these resources. In addition, the numbers of people traveling to Antarctica to conduct science, support research, and as tourist continue to rise IAATO. The increased presence of people in Antarctica brings about a variety of pressures on the environment and in some cases has resulted in the deterioration of environmental quality and health in the local area.



Within this context the Treaty nations and the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) have been discussing and addressing a wide range of environmental issues over the last two decades. The Antarctic Conservation Act and much of the original treaty wording deal with the conduct of people in Antarctica and recognizes that the continent is a place for the peaceful pursuit of science. While several countries have territorial claims on Antarctica, these claims have been put in abeyance in the name of cooperation for many years to come.

Territorial Claims on Antarctica


Since the signing of the Treaty on Environmental Protection, various protocols and addendums have been agreed to, many relating to environmental concerns in Antarctica. Of most recent interest, is the coming into force of the Environmental Protocol, which is also referred to as the 1991 Madrid Protocol. As well, at the behest of the Treaty, SCAR has formed groups of experts to address specific issues ( i.e., the Group of Specialists on Environmental Affairs on Conservation, GOSEAC and organize a series of workshops to deliberate and provide advice on environmental issues. Of particular importance to monitoring is a series of workshops, the first occurring in Buenos Aires in 1991. The workshops culminated with a pair of workshops sponsored by SCAR and the Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs (COMNAP) held in Oslo, Norway and College Station, Texas in 1995 and 1996 . These workshopes were held to specifically address monitoring of environmental impacts of science and support operations. The workshops were attended by more than 120 participants from 22 countries. The report from this workshop laid out a fundamental approach to developing monitoring programs and provide advice and guidance on a range of important issues.


Within the US Antarctic Program (USAP), administered by the National Science Foundation's Office of Polar Programs (NSF/OPP), environmental issues are addressed based on a range of legislation and laws (NSF page Dallas presentation). The US presence in Antarctica is jointly managed by several agencies and bodies including the National Science Foundation (NSF), the National Academy of Science (NAS) National Research Council's (NRC) Polar research Board (PRB), the State Department, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The National Science Foundation's Office of Polar Programs is the lead US agency for science and research in both the Arctic and Antarctica. The NSF OPP administers the US Antarctic Program (USAP) including review and award of proposals for research and oversight of all logistics and operational support including the three US stations in Antarctica. The NAS/NRC Polar Research Board provides advice and guidance to the US Antarctic Program on science issues. The PRB also serves as the US National Antarctic Committee appointing US delegates to SCAR and its working groups. The State Department, as the foreign affairs arm of the US government, deals with all Treaty related issues for the US. NOAA has a mandate to deal with issues related to marine resources including those in the Southern Ocean and interfaces with the Convention on the Conservation of Living Marine Resources (CCMLAR). Recently the EPA has been tasked with addressing issues related to tourism in Antarctica originating from tour operators in the US.


The coming into force of the Protocol on Environmental Protection in 1999 brought with it a requirement for all Antarctic treaty nations to conduct monitoring to gauge the environmental impact of its operations. While only fully ratified in the last year, USAP has conducted its operations as if the protocol were in effect since it was agreed in 1991. Based on the SCAR and COMNAP workshop and national legislation, the NSF is initiating a program for long term monitoring. While the workshop reports provided valuable information about the conceptual context and fundamental design considerations for monitoring programs, the next step was to develop a plan for implementation. The NSF OPP contracted GERG to conduct a year of planning to translate the workshop findings into a comprehensive monitoring program. During the year of planning four reports were written that provided the basis for an overall monitoring program at the US's largest scientific station, McMurdo Station. These reports included a compilation of historical information that has been collected at the station, a consideration of appropriate spatial and temporal scales for monitoring, the selection of indicators most appropriate for a monitoring program, and finally a design for a pilot project. The program was designed to be three phases, the first of which was the planning phase described above. The second is a three year pilot project to test the design assumptions and the methods employed to provide a refinement of the program design. The final phase will be the implementation of a long-term or permanent observing system to document the performance of the station into the future based on what was learned in the pilot project. Phase II, the Pilot Project is the program descibed here.


THE SCIENCE PROGRAM

The GERG Team was deployed to Antarctica to begin the first year of a three year pilot project to design and implement a long-term monitoring of McMurdo Station to detect and document impacts related to science and operations at McMurdo.


SAMPLING SNOW AND ICE
One of the first efforts by the GERG Team was to sample the snow pack on the ice directly offshore of McMurdo Station. There is substantial traffic of various types of vehicles across the frozen sea ice adjacent to the station. It is expected that as the ice and snow melts during the austral summer, any materials contained in the snow will be deposited in the underlying marine sediments or transported from the area. In an effort to understand the origins of material in the snow, samples were collected in an area called the "transition" which includes the road to the seasonal runway, various buildings and the staging area for the snowmobile operations. The area is characterized by disturbance of the snow and particulate matter occurs in many locations. To determine the origins of this material a series of samples were collected at locations throughout the area. Twenty-eight samples of snow were collected directly into two 500 ml sterile glass jars. The location of each sample was determined by differential Global Positioning System (GPS).


The condition of the snow cover at each location was documented by digital photography. Many different types of disturbance were recorded in the area. The most common contamination of the snow appeared to be from topsoil entrained onto the ice by the various activities. Upon return to the laboratory the snow and ice was allowed to melt and pH, salinity, and total suspended solids (TSS) were determined from the melt water. The second melt water was also submitted for analysis of nutrients (ammonia, nitrate, nitrite, and phosphate) and major anions and cations. The solids recovered by filtering the melt water will be returned to the US for determination of metal, content. All of this information will be used to assess the originof the material entrained onto the ice and the importance of this input the underlying marine sediments.



A map showing sampling locations two on the ice sheet in the transition zone.


The snow accumulation at the ice shelf site IS-2.


SAMPLING SOILS


A major focus of the first year effort is to establish a network of sampling sites around McMurdo Station to better understand the distribution of contaminants and to highlight any areas of special concern. In order to do this, a grid of several hundred sites was constructed.


At each of these sites a series of measurements are made and samples are collected for later analysis. At each site the location is documented in a digital photograph, the depth of permafrost is measured by a probe, the slope of the site is determined with an inclinometer, and the level of disturbance is noted. In addition a 125 ml glass jar and a 6 ounce whirlpak is filled with soil.


The whirlpak is subsampled in the laboratory for determination of total organic and inorganic carbon. The remaining material is refrigerated at 4 degrees centigrade for return to the US for grain size determination. The jar of soil is frozen at –20 degrees centigrade for storage and transport to the US where hydrocarbons (fuel) and metal content will be determined. The data produced will be used to develop thematic maps of the station area and to developing a better understanding of the distribution of contaminants at the station (hydrocarbons and metals).



A map showing sampling point number 11 on the G13 sampling grid.



A picture of the G13-11 sample site.


IN THE LABORATORY


A wide variety of data is to be collected and produced by analyzing the "soil" samples collected throughout the McMurdo area. The extensive laboratory facilities at McMurdo station make the real time analysis of some parameters possible. Some parameters must be analyzed soon after collection because the constituents of interest degrade upon storage. The production of data on location also allows for a revision in the sampling plan by reviewing the results in real-time. The field data is collected in a variety of ways including visual observations (per cent disturbance, level of disturbance), probes (permafrost depth), and digital photography. Other types of data involve the processing and analyzing of samples. For snow and ice melt water pH is determined by electrode. The electrode is calibrated with known buffer solutions and then the pH of the sample is measured by immersing the electrode in the melt water. Salinity of the melt water is also measured by a probe based on conductivity. Suspended solids or particulate matter is determined by filtering the melt water through a polycarbonate filter that has been weighed prior to filtering. The material retained on the filter is determined by difference and concentration is calculated by dividing the sample weight by the volume of melt water filtered. Carbon content in soils and sediments is determined by combustion at high temperature using a carbon analyzer and measuring the carbon dioxide euulued. Other methods for hydrocarbons and metals are more involved and require extensive laboratory facilities. Once samples are returned to the US clean methods, highly precise and accurate methodologies, and established quality objectives are key to producing high quality data.


Progress to Date


This section of the page will be routinely updated to provide a review of progress to date in completing the project.